Figure 1
Potential neuroprotective mechanisms of ketones. Ketones (1) require only three enzymatic steps to enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, (2) reduce the NAD couple, (3) decrease free radical formation, (4) increase production of ATP, (5) increase mitochondrial uncoupling, (6) increase glutathione peroxidase activity, and (7) inhibit pyruvate entry into the TCA cycle. CoA, coenzyme A; GSH, reduced glutathione; GSSG, oxidized glutathione; NAD+, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogenase; NADP, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogenase; OHB, hydroxybutyrate; PPP, pentose phosphate pathway; UCP, uncoupling protein. Reprinted with permission from [43].