Breathing variability—implications for anaesthesiology and intensive care

Table 2 Control of spontaneous respiration

	Location	Stimulus	Pathway
Central chemoreceptors	Ventral medulla	CSF pH	Direct effect
Peripheral chemoreceptors	Bifurcation of common carotid artery, aortic arch	Arterial pH, PaO₂, PaCO₂,	Glossopharyngeal nerve, vagal nerve
Mechanoreceptors	Tracheal and bronchial muscle spindles	Stretching of lung parenchyma	Vagal nerve
Mechanoreceptors	Airways and alveoli	Temperature, dust, noxious gases	Vagal nerve
Locomotion receptors	Muscles and joints	Limb movement	Spinal pathways
Other	Cerebral cortex and (para)limbic system	Emotion, pain, arousal	Monosynaptic connections
Other	Cerebral cortex	Conscious/voluntary control	Corticospinal pathways