Fig. 2

Molecular and cellular mechanisms of neuroinflammation. Blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction contributes to the process of neuroinflammation. After losing its integrity, the BBB allows circulating leukocytes (e.g., monocytes and neutrophils) and proinflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, to enter the brain parenchyma. Microglia and astrocytes proliferate, become reactive, and undergo functional and morphological changes. Microglial cells increase the release of reactive oxygen species, cytokines, chemokines, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) expression/activity, as well as decrease brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. Astrocytes increase the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and vimentin, which cause morphological changes, losing their function as supportive glial cells and developing impairment of neurotransmitter recycling. Neuroinflammation also impacts neurons and synaptic transmission, leading to impairments in long-term potentiation (LTP) and neurotransmitter system dysfunctions