Table 4 Some examples of biomarkers that have been assessed for use in specific clinical situations
Situation | Biomarker |
|---|---|
To diagnose infection in patients with a particular pathology/condition | |
After cardiac surgery | |
After major surgery | Peptidoglycan [95], elastase [96], leptin [84], calprotectin [75], a proliferation-inducing ligand [97], α-2 macroglobulin [89], lipopolysaccharide-binding protein [15] |
COPD | Pentraxin 3 [98] |
Cirrhosis | Interleukin (IL)-6 [72] |
Trauma | |
Catheter-related infections | Citrulline [102] |
Infants with necrotic enterocolitis | IP-10 [103] |
Neutropenic patients | Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein [104], pro-adrenomedullin [105] |
Burns | |
Autoimmune diseases | CD64 [108] |
To diagnose specific types of infection | |
Gram (−) vs. Gram (+) | Fibrin degradation products [109], lipopolysaccharide-binding protein [104], CD11b [87] |
Virus vs. bacterial infection or co-infection | Transforming growth factor (TGF-β) [110], tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α [111] |
VAP | suPAR [112] |
Diagnosis of specific conditions | |
Sepsis vs. graft rejection | Lysozyme [113] |
Diagnosis of ARDS | Club cell secretory protein (CC)-16 [114], surfactant protein [114] |
Vascular leakage risk in ARDS | von Willebrand factor [115], angiopoietins (1 and 2) [25], IL-8 [116], syndecan-1 [117], HMGB-1 [118] |
Recovery from ARDS—endothelial repair | sRAGE [119] |
Identification of low risk of infection in hematological/oncological patients | |
Identification of infection before clinical symptoms | |
Risk of encephalopathy/delirium | |
Disseminated intravascular coagulation | P-selectin [129], protein C [130], microparticles [131], matrix-metalloproteinases [132], thrombin-antithrombin complex [133], a2PI [134] |