Table 2 Selected animal studies investigating post-ARDS cognitive impairment

De la Torre et al.

Rat

Chronic cerebrovascular insufficiency following ligation of the common carotid and left subclavian arteries in aged rats induces behavioral and cognitive impairments consistent with dementia

Pappas et al.

Rat

Rats exposed to chronic reduction of cerebral blood flow following carotid artery ligation develop memory dysfunction and cell loss in the CA1 region of the hippocampus

Feldman et al.

Rabbit

Positive end-expiratory pressure reduces intracranial compliance in rabbits

Wilson et al.

Mouse

High-tidal-volume mechanical ventilation upregulates cytokines in mouse lungs

Altmeier et al.

Mouse

Systemic inflammation simulated by lipopolysaccharide in mechanically ventilated mice induces cytokine-mediated lung injury in mechanically ventilated wild-type mice

Fries et al.

Pig

Mechanically ventilated pigs exposed to hypoxemia with lung injury develop histopathologic changes in the CA1 region of the hippocampus not when exposed to the same degree of hypoxemia alone, suggesting lung injury as a mechanism of damage independent from hypoxemia

Semmler et al.

Rat

Systemic inflammation induces apoptosis in the rat brain, particularly in the hippocampus

Wilson et al.

Mouse

Pulmonary inflammation following high-tidal-volume mechanical ventilation in mice without underlying lung injury is mediated by TNF-α

Bickenbach et al.

Pig

Low- versus high-tidal-volume mechanical ventilation improves cerebral tissue oxygenation in pigs

Wolthuis et al.

Mouse

Mechanical ventilation even at lower tidal volumes causes lung injury in wild-type mice without history of lung disease

Bickenbach et al.

Pig

Mechanically ventilated pigs exposed to hypoxemia with lung injury demonstrate trends toward elevated cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α in the CA1 region of the hippocampus versus mechanically ventilated pigs exposed to hypoxemia alone

Heuer et al.

Pig

In mechanically ventilated pigs, ARDS results in elevations in TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, which further increase in pigs with acute intracranial hypertension. The combination of ARDS and acute intracranial hypertension results in hippocampal damage. Acute intracranial hypertension induces lung injury and extravascular lung water

Imamura et al.

Mouse

In a mouse model of septic encephalopathy, an IL-1β cytokine-mediated process disrupts the synaptic processing of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus

Davis et al.

Mouse

Baseline neurodegeneration in mice increases the risk, duration, and severity of delirium

Shohami et al.

Rat

TNF-α and IL-6 are detected in the contused hemisphere of rats soon after closed head injury, but not in healthy rats. TNF-α is detected as early as 1 h after injury and peaks at 4 h, whereas IL-6 is detected at 3–5 h and peaks at 8 h after injury

Lahiri et al.

Mouse

High-tidal-volume mechanical ventilation simulates Alzheimer’s disease pathophysiology in transgenic Alzheimer’s disease and wild-type mice