Table 1 Selected adverse effects of prolonged bed rest

Musculoskeletal

• Decreased muscle protein synthesis [14]

• Muscle atrophy and decrease in lean muscle mass [80]

• Decreased muscle strength [14]

• Decreased exercise capacity [81]

• Connective tissue shortening and joint contractures [82]

• Decreased bone density [80]

• Pressure ulcers [83]

Pulmonary

• Atelectasis [84]

• Pneumonia [85]

• Decreased maximal inspiratory pressure and forced vital capacity [81]

Cardiovascular

• Decreased total cardiac and left ventricular size [86]

• Decreased lower extremity venous compliance [87]

• Orthostatic intolerance [88]

• Decreased cardiac output, stroke volume, and peripheral vascular resistance [86, 89, 90]

• Impaired microvascular function [91]

• Decreased cardiac response to carotid sinus stimulation [89]

Endocrine and Metabolism

• Decreased insulin sensitivity [91]

• Decreased aldosterone and plasma renin activity [92]

• Increased atrial natriuretic peptide [93]