Figure 1

Main biomarkers used in subarachnoid haemorrhage, traumatic brain injury and stroke. Biomarkers can be classified according to their role in brain injuries: inflammation and activation; protein degradation; necrosis and apoptosis; cytoskeleton damage; functional alteration; and endothelial alteration. BBB, blood–brain barrier; ET-1, endothelin-1; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1; IL, interleukin; MBP, myelin basic protein; MMP-9, matrix metalloproteinase-9; NF, neurofilament; NSE, neuron-specific enolase; S100β, S100β protein; SBDP, α2-spectrin breakdown product; TNF, tumour necrosis factor; UCH-L1, ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L-1; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; vWF, von Willebrand factor.