Table 1 Pharmacokinetic parameters of β-lactam antibiotics^a

Carbapenems

   Meropenem

21.2 ± 4.7^b

11.3 ± 4^b

1.4 ± 0.4^b

N = 11

Age 63.1 years [23 to 81]

Mild to severe intraabdominal sepsis

Descriptive

Lovering et al., 1995 [22]

   Meropenem

26.6 ± 3.2^c

9.4 ± 1.2^c

2.0

N = 15

Age 55.3 ± 14.3 years

Severe sepsis

Randomized, controlled cross-over

Thalhammer et al., 1999 [27]

   Meropenem

34.4 ± 15.9

11 ± 4.3

0.4 ± 0.12

N = 8

Age 55 ± 8 years

VAP

Descriptive

de Stoppelaar et al., 2000 [19]

   Meropenem

19.7 ± 5

7.3 ± 3.1

3.1 ± 1.5

N = 14

Age 73.3 ± 8.1 years

Severe sepsis

Descriptive

Kitzes-Cohen et al., 2002 [21]

   Meropenem

16.0 ± 3.7^d

8.5 ± 3.2^d

1.4 ± 0.6^d

N = 9

Age 39.6 ± 15.7 years

VAP

Not randomized, controlled cross-over

Jaruratanasirikul et al., 2005 [20]

   Imipenem

Imipenem

17.7 ± 4

Imipenem

7.0 ± 2.5

Imipenem

2 ± 0.3

Imipenem

N = 10

Age 65 ± 19 years

Randomized, parallel controlled

Novelli et al., 2005 [29]

   Meropenem

Meropenem

27.1 ± 7.7

Meropenem

11.5 ± 3.1

Meropenem

2.1 ± 0.5

Meropenem

N = 10

Age 67 ± 19 years

Severe sepsis

   Meropenem

23.8 ± 4.9

6.7 ± 4.2

3.7 ± 1.9

N = 6

Age 65.7 ± 11.2 years

Peritonitis

Descriptive

Karjagin et al., 2008 [25]

   Meropenem

22.7

13.6 ± 1.3

NR

N = 10

Age range 48 to 63 years

Severe sepsis

Randomized, parallel controlled

Roberts et al., 2009 [24]

   Meropenem

Meropenem

30.1 [21.7 to 53.9]^e

Meropenem

8 [5 to 10.99^e

Meropenem

2.1 [1.7 to 3.4]

Meropenem

N = 16

Cross-sectional

Taccone et al., 2010 [23]

   Piperacillin

Piperacillin

26.6 [20.3 to 30.1]^e

Piperacillin

8.4 [5.5 to 18.1]^e

Piperacillin

2.6 [1.5 to 3.8]

Piperacillin

N = 27

   Ceftazidime

Ceftazidime

33.6 [25.2 to 49.7]^e

Ceftazidime

3.8 [2.5 to 5.5]^e

Ceftazidime

5.8 [4.1 to 7.4]

Ceftazidime

N = 18

   Cefepime

Cefepime

25.2 [23.1 to 30.8]^e

Cefepime

5.5 [4.6 to 8.4]^e

Cefepime

3.4 [2.3 to 5.3]

Cefepime

N = 19

All patients: median age 63 years

Severe sepsis or septic shock

   Imipenem

31.4 ± 11.7

14.4 ± 4.5

1.6 ± 1.3

N = 10

Age 44 ± 12.2 years

Severe sepsis

Descriptive

McKindley et al., 1996 [34]

   Imipenem

18.5

6.3 ± 0.8

2.0

N = 6

Age 63.5 ± 16.7 years

Severe sepsis

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Tegeder et al., 2002 [32]

   Imipenem

45.5 ± 47.2

12.1 ± 12.0

2.9 ± 1.7

N = 50

Age 45.2 ± 17 years

Presumed Gram-negative sepsis

Cross-sectional

Belzberg et al., 2004 [28]

   Imipenem

12.2 ± 9.9^f

12.3 ± 4.2

NR

N = 20

Age 60.5 years

VAP

Randomized, parallel, controlled

Sakka et al., 2007 [31]

   Imipenem

27.2 ± 6.5

13.3 ± 5.2

1.4 ± 0.2

N = 6

Age 53.3 ± 19.9 years

Severe sepsis

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Dahyot et al., 2008 [33]

   Imipenem

16.7 ± 5.3^g

8.7 ± 5.3^g

1.5 ± 0.7^g

N = 9

Age 63.3 ± 14.9 years

VAP

Not randomized, controlled, cross-over

Jaruratanasirikul and Sudsai, 2009 [30]

Penicillins

   Piperacillin

25.0 ± 17.2

23.8 ± 17.2

1.5 ± 2.1

N = 11

Age 43.6 ± 15.9 years

Surgical patients

Descriptive

Shikuma et al., 1990 [36]

   Piperacillin

19.5 ± 3.4^b

8.4 ± 1.4^b

1.8 ± 0.3^b

N = 10

Age 37.7 ± 2.8 years

Burn patients

Descriptive

Bourget et al., 1996 [38]

   Piperacillin

40.7 ± 8.7

8.2 ± 2

4.1 ± 1.3

N = 6

Age 64 ± 7 years

Septic shock

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Joukhadar et al., 2001 [44]

   Piperacillin

34.6 ± 6.8^c

11.8 ± 4.3^c

2.4 ± 1.2^c

N = 7

Age range 45 to 76 years

Severe sepsis

Not randomized, controlled, cross-over

Langgartner et al., 2007 [39]

   Piperacillin

11.7^f

17.2

0.4

N = 13

Age 37.5 ± 19.4 years

Severe sepsis

Randomized, parallel, controlled

Roberts et al., 2009 [45]

Cephalosporins

   Cefpirome

23.6 ± 8.0

8.0 ± 3.0

2.2 ± 0.5

N = 9

Age 31 years [19 to 53]

Severe sepsis

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Jacolot et al., 1999 [47]

   Cefpirome

26.4 ± 7.9

8.8 ± 3.4

3.1 ± 1.2

N = 12

Age 41.2 ± 19 years

Severe sepsis

Descriptive

Lipman et al., 2001 [48]

   Cefpirome

25.9 ± 7.1

4.5 ± 0.7

3.3 ± 0.5

N = 12

Age 67.2 ± 8.1 years

Severe sepsis or septic shock

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Joukhadar et al., 2002 [52]

   Cefpirome

21.9 ± 4.5

4.8 ± 1.6

3.1 ± 0.9

N = 11

Age 66 ± 8 years

Severe sepsis

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Sauermann et al., 2005 [51]

   Cefepime

32.6 ± 17.5

7.5 ± 3.1

3.5 ± 1.1

N = 7

Age 73.7 ± 4.9 years

Severe sepsis

Descriptive

Kieft et al., 1993 [53]

   Cefepime

21.8 ± 5.1

7.6 ± 2.0

3 ± 1.2

N = 13

Age 55 years

Severe sepsis

Descriptive

Lipman et al., 1999 [56]

   Cefepime

36.1 ± 11.8

8.8 ± 2.4

2.8 ± 0.6

N = 12

Age 41 ± 13 years

Burn patients

Descriptive

Bonapace et al., 1999 [57]

   Cefepime

26.0^b

9.1 ± 1.5^b

2.5 ± 0.6^b

N = 6

Age 39.8 ± 11.3 years

Burn patients

Descriptive

Sampol et al., 2000 [61]

   Cefepime

Cefepime 19.6

Cefepime 7.1 ± 3.6

Cefepime 2.9 ± 3.2

Cefepime

N = 13

Age 48.2 ± 21.2 years

Cross-sectional

Conil et al., 2007 [54]

   Ceftazidime

Ceftazidime 28.8

Ceftazidime 7.5 ± 3.8

Ceftazidime 3.1 ± 2.1

Ceftazidime

N = 17

Age 62.9 ± 22.4 years

Burn patients

   Cefepime

28.7 ± 13.3^d

9.1 ± 5.6^d

4.3 ± 4.2

N = 21

Age 55.1 years (median)

Nosocomial pneumonia

Cross-sectional

Chapuis et al., 2010 [55]

   Ceftazidime

24.5

7.5

2.1

N = 16

Age range 18 to 70 years

Pseudomonas infection

Descriptive

Rondanelli et al., 1986 [64]

   Ceftazidime

49.3 ± 18.2^e

15.5 ± 2.5^e

1.8 ± 0.5^e

N = 5

Age 52.3 years [21 to 69]

VAP

Not randomized, controlled, cross-over

Langer et al., 1991 [76]

   Ceftazidime

29.5 ± 8.7

4.2 ± 1.9

6.1 ± 2.5

N = 12

Age 60 ± 13 years

VAP

Not randomized, controlled, cross-over

Bressolle et al., 1992 [77]

   Ceftazidime

18.9 ± 9^c

5.1^c

3.5 ± 1.6^c

N = 12

Age 57 ± 12 years

Suspected Gram-negative sepsis

Not randomized, controlled, cross-over

Benko et al., 1996 [67]

   Ceftazidime

15.0 ± 4.3

5.2 ± 2.2

1.3 ± 1.2

N = 10

Age 48 ± 15.1 years

Severe sepsis

Descriptive

Young et al., 1997 [65]

   Ceftazidime

56.9 ± 25.9

9.1 ± 4.8

4.8 ± 1.9

N = 15

Age 59.3 ± 14.6 years

Severe sepsis

Descriptive

Gómez et al., 1999 [66]

   Ceftazidime

22.9 [11.8 to 28.1]

2.8 [0.2 to 7.8]

7.7 [2 to 44.7]

N = 21

Age range 27 to 73 years

Melioidosis

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Angus et al., 2000 [71]

   Ceftazidime

25.6 ± 11.2^c

11.0 ± 5.3^c

1.7 ± 0.7^c

N = 14

Age 36.1 ± 12.8 years

Gram-negative nosocomial pneumonia

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Hanes et al., 2000 [70]

   Ceftazidime

19.6 [14 to 28]^{c, e}

5.1 [2.3 to 8.9]^c

4.2 [1.3 to 12.3]^c

N = 6

Age 64 years [42 to 87]

Surgical peritonitis

Not randomized, parallel, controlled

Buijk et al., 2002 [74]